A Study of Siouan Cults Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1889-1890, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1861, pages 351-544

James Owen Dorsey's extensive study offers a meticulous ethnographic and linguistic examination of the religious beliefs and cults among Siouan-speaking tribes such as the Omaha, Ponka, Dakota, Kansa, Osage, and others. Rejecting simplistic notions of a monotheistic 'Great Spirit,' Dorsey presents a nuanced picture of a polytheistic and animistic worldview where multiple Wakandas—mysterious powers associated with natural phenomena like the sun, moon, thunder, winds, and subterranean beings—play central roles.

The book distinguishes between myths told for entertainment and sacred religious knowledge tied to visions, secret societies, and ceremonies requiring fasting and prayer. Personal spiritual experiences, especially visions, inspire sacred decorations on robes and tents, which serve as visible markers of identity, social status, and spiritual power within gentes and sub-gentes. These decorations often symbolize natural and supernatural phenomena such as the aurora borealis, stars, moon, thunder beings, and animals.

Sacred objects and fetiches—including pipes, poles, hides, arrows, clam shells, and mystery bags—embody spiritual power and are protected by strict taboos. Rituals such as the sun dance involve intense physical ordeals, scarification, and community participation, symbolizing devotion and connection to cosmic forces. The study also documents the roles of shamans, medicine men, and wakan individuals who claim supernatural powers, perform healing, and communicate with spirits.

Beliefs about death and the afterlife vary but commonly include the existence of ghosts or shades that interact with the living, requiring offerings and ceremonies to maintain harmony. Ghost lodges, ghost feasts, and the careful preservation of hair as a ghost's representation illustrate the deep ties between the living and the spirit world.

The work covers a wide range of spiritual beings and motifs, from the antinatural Heyoka gods with contrary behaviors to trickster figures like Ikto/Iktomi, and from guardian spirits to malevolent monsters like Anuŋg-ite. Gender nonconformity is recognized and incorporated into spiritual roles, notably through berdaches associated with moon powers.

Dorsey also surveys related tribes such as the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Sapona, describing their ceremonies involving self-sacrifice and endurance, and highlighting the diversity of Siouan religious practices. He critically examines previous claims of monotheism and scriptural concepts, emphasizing indigenous perspectives and the importance of understanding beliefs in their own terms.

Throughout, the study reveals the integration of religion with social organization, personal names, secret societies, and ritual practices. It acknowledges uncertainties and variations among tribes and informants, underscoring the complexity and evolving nature of Siouan spiritual life. The book invites readers to appreciate the depth, symbolism, and lived experience of these indigenous cults, moving beyond stereotypes to a respectful and detailed ethnographic portrait.