Crime and Its Causes

William Douglas Morrison's "Crime and Its Causes" offers a comprehensive examination of crime through a scientific and statistical lens, primarily focusing on data from the late 19th century. The book begins by presenting the evolution and limitations of criminal statistics, highlighting difficulties in comparing crime rates internationally due to differing legal systems and enforcement practices. Morrison emphasizes that crime is a multifaceted social problem influenced by cosmical (environmental), social, and individual factors rather than by poverty alone.

The work investigates the impact of climate and physical environment on human biology and social behavior, noting that warmer regions tend to have higher crime rates among European populations. However, this pattern is complicated by social organization, as seen in India’s caste system, which effectively suppresses violent crime despite high temperatures. Morrison suggests that social cohesion and community surveillance, such as those enforced by caste or trade societies, play crucial roles in crime prevention.

Seasonal variations in crime are analyzed, revealing that summer months see increases in certain offenses and prison discipline breaches, possibly linked to temperature effects on human physiology and social habits. Economic explanations for these patterns, such as increased vagrancy, are questioned. The author carefully distinguishes between destitution and habitual criminality, showing that many offenders are not truly impoverished but rather driven by personal disposition or social environment. Vagrancy and begging are often professionalized behaviors rather than direct results of economic hardship.

Morrison critically examines poverty’s role in crime, using international comparisons to show that richer societies sometimes experience higher theft rates than poorer ones. He argues that material prosperity alone does not reduce crime and may contribute to moral and physical decline. The importance of moral development, home environment, and ethical ideals emerges as a recurring theme.

The book also explores sex and age differences in crime, noting that men commit more crimes than women, who, despite fewer offenses, often engage in more serious crimes. Female criminality is influenced by moral factors and physical strength, with women frequently acting as instigators but less often punished. Juvenile delinquency is addressed, with reform institutions playing a role in reducing youth imprisonment. The relationship between age and crime shows peaks in early adulthood, and the persistence of female criminality once begun is noted.

On the individual level, Morrison investigates whether criminals possess distinct physical or mental characteristics. He finds conflicting evidence and cautions against simplistic biological determinism. Criminals tend to have intellectual deficiencies and weaker emotional ties but are shaped significantly by environment and habit. Theories of punishment are discussed, balancing retribution, protection, reformation, and deterrence. The author advocates for humane prison administration and post-release support, recognizing the challenges of recidivism, especially among habitual offenders.

Finally, the book details the difficulties discharged prisoners face reintegrating into society, highlighting the role of voluntary aid societies that assist with employment and social support. Morrison critiques light punishments for habitual criminals as ineffective and notes increasing crime rates despite leniency. The work concludes that crime prevention requires a nuanced understanding of multiple causes and a combination of enlightened legal, social, and moral measures.