The Psychology of Nations A Contribution to the Philosophy of History

George Everett Partridge’s "The Psychology of Nations" offers a thoughtful and wide-ranging study of the motives behind war and the challenges of education in the aftermath of World War I. The work is divided into two main parts: the first examines the complex psychological, social, and historical causes of war; the second addresses educational problems arising from the new international realities.

Rejecting simplistic biological explanations that view war as a natural racial struggle, Partridge argues that war is primarily a social and psychological phenomenon. He identifies a "war mood"—a composite emotional state involving fear, anger, pride, and a craving for power—that transforms primitive impulses like thievery, fear, and display into complex social ecstasies. Central to this mood is the "intoxication motive," a psychological craving for exalted states of consciousness akin to those found in art, religion, and intoxication. This motive fuels the ecstatic and tragic elements of war, including the idealization of heroic death.

Partridge explores how national character and collective moods shape the persistence of war. For example, he analyzes Germany’s pre-war psychological transition marked by a failed search for a dominant philosophy, leading to fanaticism and militarism fueled by fear and hatred—especially toward England. He emphasizes that fear is a deep, often hidden motive underlying aggression and defensive strategies, while hatred, rooted in jealousy and inferiority, serves as a group bonding mechanism but also perpetuates conflict.

War is portrayed not as a regression to barbarism but as a new social mood with aesthetic and dramatic qualities. Patriotism is dissected as a multifaceted emotion involving love of country, loyalty to leaders, and national honor, which itself is tied to pride and jealousy over perceived prestige. Partridge notes that wars often begin without clear principles but acquire moral justifications as they progress.

The book also surveys philosophical, religious, economic, political, and historical causes of war, concluding that no single factor suffices. Philosophies like Nietzsche’s have been misused rather than directly causing war. Religion and mysticism intertwine with political aims, especially in German nationalism, but do not alone explain conflict. Economic motives such as colonial ambitions are often symbolic rather than practical. Political desires for empire and national honor are deeply emotional and sometimes irrational.

Turning to education, Partridge stresses its dual role as both a cause and potential remedy for war. He calls for a new educational philosophy that expands history teaching to include national psychology and fosters a balanced national consciousness. Internationalism emerges as a transformative ideal requiring practical cooperation among nations and a philosophic attitude to support world organization and law. Education must address the democratic spirit’s complexity, urban influences, and the moral dilemma of teaching about war and peace without falling into extremes of pacifism or militarism.

Patriotism is examined as loyalty to multiple objects: land, customs, leaders, and history. Partridge advocates for an enlightened patriotism that balances national loyalty with tolerance and justice, contrasting German militarism with American ideals of citizenship and moral conduct. Political education is vital for democracy, which is described as experimental and evolving. The war’s acceleration of government control and industrial centralization demands educational reforms that include social, aesthetic, and economic dimensions.

Finally, Partridge highlights social education’s importance in overcoming class antagonisms, sex inequality, and racial antipathies. He proposes cultivating a common religious or humanistic spirit emphasizing justice, personality, and feeling over rigid doctrines. Education should foster originality, moral responsibility, and social cohesion, recognizing moods as fundamental psychological states driving conduct. The fragility of social order and the potential for primitive forces to disrupt democracy underscore the urgency of conscious educational control.

Throughout, the tone is analytical, reflective, and cautiously optimistic. Partridge avoids dogmatic conclusions, acknowledging uncertainties about the precise causes of war and the effectiveness of education. His work invites readers to reconsider assumptions about war, patriotism, government, and education, encouraging a broad, interdisciplinary understanding of nations as complex psychological and social entities.